Тменов В.Х. - Зодчество средневековой Осетии [1996, DjVu, RUS]

The process of formation and development of the Late Medieval stone architecture of the peoples of North Caucasus was determined by social, economic and religious factors. It took place against the background of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, Timur’s expansion and later by the aggressive onrushes of Iran, Turkey and the Crimean Khanate. On the vast plains and foothills territories once occupied by Alans settled Adygei (Kabardian) tribes, migrate Nogai hordes, appear first Russian settlements. In the remotest mountain gorges profound ethnic processes are going on which results in formation of the Ossetian and Balkar-Karachaev societies the main forming component of which were Alans forced earlier to the mountains. So considerable an ethnic diversity of the Late Medieval North Caucasus, accompanied by interior conflicts, break up of the patriarchal mode of life, formation and strengthening of the feudal relations inevitably put forward the questions of coexistence of cultures different in character, and theory hastened leveling. The mutual links and influence of different ethnic groups which experienced certain cultural and political influence of feudal Georgia brought into existence common features in the material and spiritual culture of mountaineers, in their customs and traditions, in religion and law, and as a result led to formation of the common Caucasian culture with its local variations.
The latter fact is especially vividly illustrated by numerous and differing in type historical and architectural monuments of mountain Ossetia, namely: defensive, cryptal and cultural structures genetically connected not only with one another but also with the monuments of domestic architecture, i.e. dwelling places. The present work is dedicated to their analysis and interpretation. On the basis of actual materials, gathered by the author during many years of excavations, of perusing literature and archive sources, by applying new (mathematical — statistical) methods to the study of the Late Medieval stone architecture, we are tackling the problem of determining the ethnic identity, the type and chronology of the \above mentioned erections, including common Caucasian and particularly local structural features in the design, the origins and regularities of the development of architectural features, cause and effect relations between the monuments, the social structure of the mountain societies and dominant ideological ideas. In other words in this research an emphasis is laid on the statement, that Architecture never developed independently of the culture created in the course of many centuries (V.L. Glazichev).
In spite of the difficult ecological conditions under which the mountaineers dwelt, their economy, based mainly on cattle brining, turned out to be prepared for the (<splash " of architecture, that gave birth to most varied categories and types of monuments. As it has deen more than once mentioned above, the social differentiation of the mountain societies found its reflection in architecture and first of all in fortifications. Castles, towers, houses of feu da Is are usually more solid and stand out due to their elaborate forms. Towers and other fortifications, that belong to rural clans and individual kinds (families) were simpler though not less important. But in any case fortified architectural ensembles are monumental and magnificent. The emotional expression of power does not subdue, but ensures the feeling of security. In the course of its development monumental architecture created a fortified dwelling, which helped to solve various tasks set before the architects by the society" (M.I. Dzandiary, G.I. Lezhava).
The property and social inequality of the members of the society is distinctly traced on funeral monuments. Economically or numerically more developed (strong) families, not necessarily feudal ones, erected capital ground vaults for burial, while file and rank (free) members of the community buried their deceased in half — underground family burial vaults, but the dependent strata of the community buried them in stone boxes or in ground graves. With the establishment of Islam in North Caucasus in the 17–18 th centuries there appears a relatively new functional kind of funeral erections: mausoleums (vaults — mausoleums), belonging to feudal exclusively, who adopted Islam to strengthen their class position. Architecturally mausoleums are rather close to pagan vaults, but the funeral ceremony (in land) mausoleums radically differ from the former.
The penetration of Islam into North Caucasus sharpened ideological struggle in mountain societies, though outwardly it was not always noticeable. During many centuries with varying success a fierce struggle went on between Paganism and Christianity, implanted by Georgian missionaries in the interests of the state they represented.
In place especially revered by pagans, churches and temples had been erected since the Early Medieval period. During the periods when the political influence of Georgian Kingdom lessened, churches were replaced by Pagan temples of Christian erections were transformed into Pagan ones. Due to predominance of patriarchal relations the position of Paganism has always been strong and its impact on the mentality of mountaineers is not to be neglected. Nevertheless the Christian dogma has also considerably effected the religious ideas of the people: some changes have occurred in the traditional ceremonies, the perception of some of the pagan saints has acquired a Christian "flavour" etc.
In their struggle for the minds and souls of the mountaineers Moslem preachers had a face of fierce resistance put up by both the Pagans and Christian clergy, who appreciated the menacing danger of the Moslem religion for the local population which, if converted into Islam might have been absorbed by Iran and Turkey. Most probably it was this collision between Islam and Christianity (alongside other factors) which strengthened and preserved the Pagan perception of the world. Thus, for instance, Ossetes, although having adopted both Christianity (twice) and Mohammedanism, have in fact not given up their former Pagan mentality, because the doctrines of official religions have failed to produce a profound impact on their minds. The Ossetic pagan pantheon is characterized by the prevalence of patrons of farming, which is suggestive of the fact, that farming have been of major importance in the economy of Alans-Ossetes before they were forced back to the mountains. To warship their pagan gods Ossetes and their neighbors Vainakhs would erect heathen temples, which were an essential attribute of any mountain settlement.
Speaking of the architecture of the North Caucasian mountain villages scholars have long ago praised the skillful sophisticated craftsmanship of the Medieval architects. "These craftsmen have not only created lefty dwelling places, but by using a skillful combination of vertical and horisontal lines have enriched the expressive artistic and emotional potential of general architectural compositions, thus promoting further progress of not only certain types of dwelling places but also of building skills and techniques in general. All this reflected and realized the creative potential of Medieval mountain architecture" (M.I. Dzhandiery, M.I. Lezhava, B.L. Glazychev). The architectural ensembles created by local architects were wonderfully harmonious combining "integrity and diversity". "The systems of commensurable quantities worked out by them for erections not only met functional — constructive requirements, but also gratified aesthetic feeling due to the architecture" (A.V. Ikonnikov). The fact that the craftsmen used a certain module (a measure of length forming the basis of architectural design) to erect all kinds of buildings also manifested their ever growing creative abilities.
The development of architectural ideas and practical folk architecture throughout the Late Medieval period winy through falls and rises but never lingered on its onward march. Whatever the historical experience of North Caucasian peoples was, people always needed housing, burial places, worship places.
After the annexation of North Caucasus by Russia and the following migration of a considerable number of mountaineers to the North Caucasus plains their dwelling constructions undergo essential changes, although many elements of their traditional design are still traceable. Towers in the mountains are no longer erected (though still used). The same is true of many Kinds of burial vaults and worship places. The drastic social and economic changes the migration entailed after the cultural outlook and needs of the population. However a minute study of the architectural heritage of the North Caucasian peoples shows that historic epochs and characters never perish. The past history is always inherent in the present. Undercurrent streams of history only temporarily bring to the surface some elements of the national spirit and character, leaving others in the shadow, on the bottom (M.A. Voloshin). And the researcher s most important task is to bring out and enforce in the collective memory of compatriots and further generations the elements of traditional culture hidden under the cover of centuries.

• ВВЕДЕНИЕ
• ГЛАВА I. Архитектура оборонительных сооружений
1. Классификация оборонительных сооружений
2. Архитектурные особенности и хронология башенных построек
• ГЛАВА II. Архитектура погребальных (склеповых) сооружений
1. Генезис и развитие склеповых сооружений
2. Классификация погребальных памятников
• ГЛАВА III. Архитектура культовых сооружений
1. Классификация языческих святилищ
2. Традиции и инновации в культовом зодчестве
ГЛАВА IV.Закономерности в построении форм средневековой архитектуры
1. Математические основы башенного зодчества
2. Метрология склеповых сооружений
• ГЛАВА V. Декор и его символика в традиционной архитектуре
1. Элементы декоративности в традиционном зодчестве
2. Символика декора
• ГЛАВА VI. (Вместо заключения)
К вопросу об исторической интерпретации памятников традиционного каменного зодчества средневековой Осетии
• ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ
I. Библиография
II. Список сокращений
III. Указатель имен
IV. Указатель географических названий
V. Статистические таблицы
VI. Иллюстрации
• SUMMARY